Corruption in Nigeria: A New Paradigm for Effective Control

By Victor E. Dike

There are many unresolved problems in Nigeria, but the issue of the upsurge of corruption is troubling. And the damages it has done to the polity are astronomical. The menace of corruption leads to slow movement of files in offices, police extortion tollgates and slow traffics on the highways, port congestion, queues at passport offices and gas stations, ghost workers syndrome, election irregularities, among others. Even the mad people on the street recognize the havoc caused by corruption - the funds allocated for their welfare disappear into the thin air. Thus, it is believed by many in the society that corruption is the bane of Nigeria. Consequently, the issue keeps reoccurring in every academic and informal discussion in Nigeria. And the issue will hardly go away!

Some writers say that corruption is endemic in all governments, and that it is not peculiar to any continent, region and ethnic group. It cuts across faiths, religious denominations and political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike. Corruption is found in democraticand dictatorial politics; feudal, capitalist and socialist economies. Christian, Muslim, Hindu, andBuddhist cultures are equally bedeviled by corruption. And corrupt practices did not begin today; the history is as old as the world. Ancient civilizations have traces of widespread illegality and corruption. Thus, corruption has been ubiquitous in complex societies from ancient Egypt, Israel,Rome, and Greece down to the present (Lipset and Lenz 2000, pp.112-113). This does not, however, mean that the magnitude of corruption is equal in every society Some countries are more corrupt than others! As George Orwell notes in his widely read book, Animal Farm: All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others (June 1996, p.109).

Since corruption is not new, and since it is a global phenomenon, it is not peculiar to Nigeria. However, corruption is pandemic in Nigeria (and in many other African and Asian nations); the leaders as well as the followers are corrupt. Consequently, it has defied all the necessary medicines. If there is a lack of control of corruption in every sphere in the nation, it is then like the old saying: When water chokes you, what do you take to wash it down? (The Philosophy of Aristotle, 451-ME2783, p.355).

This paper, therefore, adopts a new approach to tackle the menace of corruption in Nigeria. And a broad definition of the phenomenon matters in the society for its effective control.

Definitions of Corruption

Perhaps, because corruption has received an extensive attention in the communities, and perhaps, due to the fact that it has been over-flogged in the academic circles, corruption has received varied definitions. Corruption has broadly been defined as a perversion or a change from good to bad. Specifically, corruption or corrupt behavior involves the violation of established rules for personal gain and profit (Sen 1999, p.275). Corruption is efforts to secure wealth or power through illegal means private gain at public expense; or a misuse of public power for private benefit (Lipset & Lenz, 2000, p.112-114).

In addition, corruption is a behavior which deviates from the formal duties of a public role, because of private [gains] - regarding (personal, close family, private clique, pecuniary or status gains. It is a behavior which violates rules against the exercise of certain types of [duties] for private [gains] - regarding influence (Nye, 1967). This definition includes such behavior as bribery (use of a reward to pervert the judgment of a person in a position of trust); nepotism (bestowal of patronage by reason of ascriptive relationship rather than merit); and misappropriation (illegal appropriation of public resources for private uses (Banfield 1961). To the already crowded landscape (Osoba 1996), adds that corruption is an anti-social behaviour conferring improper benefits contrary to legal and moral norms, and which undermine the authorities to improve the living conditions of the people.

Even though some of these definitions of corruption have been around for over decades, the recent development in Nigeria where discoveries of stolen public funds run into billions of US Dollars and Nigeria Naira, make these definitions very adequate and appropriate. Corruption is probably the main means to accumulate quick wealth in Nigeria. Corruption occurs in many forms, and it has contributed immensely to the poverty and misery of a large segment of the Nigerian population.

The Nature and Characteristics of Corruption

Some studies have taken a holistic (broader) approach in the discussion of corruption by dividing it into many forms and sub-divisions. These are:

i)               Political Corruption (grand);

ii)             Bureaucratic Corruption (petty); and

iii)            Electoral Corruption.

Political corruption takes place at the highest levels of political authority. It occurs when the politicians and political decision-makers, who are entitled to formulate, establish and implement the laws in the name of the people, are themselves corrupt. It also takes place when policy formulation and legislation is tailored to benefit politicians and legislators.  Political corruption is sometimes seen as similar to corruption of greed as it affects the manner in which decisions are made, as it manipulates political institutions, rules of procedure, and distorts the institutions of government (NORAD, ch.4, Jan. 2000; The Encyclopedia Americana, 1999).

Bureaucratic corruption occurs in the public administration or the implementation end of politics. This kind of corruption has been branded low level and street level. It is the kind of corruption the citizens encounter daily at places like the hospitals, schools, local licensing offices, police, taxing offices and on and on. Bureaucratic petty corruption, which is seen as similar to corruption of need, occurs when one obtains a business from the public sector through inappropriate procedure (see NORAD, ch.4, 2000).

Electoral corruption includes purchase of votes with money, promises of office or special favors, coercion, intimidation, and interference with freedom of election [Nigeria is a good example where this practice is common. Votes are bought, people are killed or maimed in the name of election, losers end up as the winners in elections, and votes turn up in areas where votes were not cast]. Corruption in office involves sales of legislative votes, administrative, or judicial decision, or governmental appointment.  Disguised payment in the form of gifts, legal fees, employment, favors to relatives, social influence, or any relationship that sacrifices the public interest and welfare, with or without the implied payment of money, is usually considered corrupt (The Encyclopedia Americana, 1999).

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HISTORY OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

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What is Algae? Give various kinds of Reproduction in Algae

Algae are small microscopic plants and are mostly aquatic. Chlorophyll and other pigments are present in the body. Algae can manufacture food by normal process of photosynthesis and are called autotrophic. Cell wall is made up of cellulose. Starch is reserve food material. They grow in habitat where light is present. Usually asexual reproduction takes place and rarely sexual, also vegetative. Vegetative Reproduction: In this process portions of plant body are separated to give rise to new individuals without any change in the protoplast. Under favourable conditions it takes place by fragmentation in which whole plant body breaks up into small units which grow independently. In mynophyceae it takes place by hormogones formation. E.g. Plenrococcus. Asexual Reproduction: It takes place by:

 (1) By Zoospores: Zoospores are formed division of contents of parent cell. In filamentous forms like ulothrix zoospores are formed from older cells of the filament. Cytoplasm is divided to form zoospores which come out from mother cell wall. Zoospores are formed in favourable condition. Zoospores are motile and may be biflagellate or tetra flagellate or multi flagellate e.g. Vaucheria.

 (2) Palmella Stage: Sometimes zoospores do not come out of mother cell but remain surrounded by mucilaginous thread inside the mother cell. On division they form colony shaped structure of Pumella. On liberation they form new plants e.g. Chlanydomonas.

 (3) By Aplanospores: Aplanospores develop in unfavourable conditions. When motile phase of zoospores in eliminated the bodies are called Aplanospores. Each spore is surrounded by a wall. E.g. Ulothrix.

 (4) By Hipnospores: When alpanospores become thick walled and undergo a long resting period they are called hypnospores e.g. Sphaerella.

(5) A Kinetes: The protoplasm of single cell converts in a single akinete. Sometimes they are formed in chains. Each akinete may develop into a new plant e.g. ordogonuim, ulothrix.  

(6) Auto spores: Plants like Scenedesmus and some other chlrococales the resting spores develop all the structures of the parent cell in which they are formed and are similar to it except in size. These spores are called auto spores.

 (7) Cysts: In unfavourable condition the plant body of some algae like vaucheria become separate by transverse septa. Each segment forms many layered thick walled spore called cyst. During favourable conditions the cyst develops into new plant.

 (8) Endospores: The endospores are formed within the cells in blue green algae and Bacillariophyceae. Sexual Reproduction: It takes place by sex cells called gametes produced in cells called gametangia. Fusion may be as under:

 (1) In algae like chlanydononas, cladophore and ulothrix gametes may be identical i.e. gametes are similar and these gametes are called isogametes and sexual process is called isogamous reproduction.

 (2) In some algae like chlanydomonas brauni fusing gametes are different in size i.e. smaller active gametes and larger passive gametes. This sexual union is called anigogamous reproduction. In both above cases product of sexual union is called zygospore.

 (3) In some cases like ordogonuim and volvox young gametes are different in size. One of the gamete is small and motile while other is large and non motile. Former is called male gamete and other is female gamete or egg or oospore. This type of sexual reproduction is called ooganous and the product is called zygote or oospore. Zygospore or zygote develops into new plant on germination they may behave us under: 

(i) Outer wall bursts and the contents surrounded by innes layer grow into new plant e.g. spirogyra.

(ii) Contents within the wall divide by meiosis to form a number of motile or non motile meisospores each of which on liberation develop into new plant e.g. Ulothrix.

(iii) Zygote divides mitotically to give rise to a small or a large diploid plant which produces the meisospores e.g. cladophora.

Regards: Foreman Abiola

If You Wanna Laugh, Just Read This. Very Funny... Lol.

A family is at the dinner table.
The son asks the
father, “Dad, how many kinds of boobs are
there?” The father, surprised, answers, “Well,
son, a woman goes through three phases. In her
20s, a woman’s breasts are like melons, round
and firm. In her 30s and 40s, they are like pears,
still nice, hanging a bit. After 50, they are like
onions.” “Onions?” the son asks. “Yes. You see
them and they make you cry.” This infuriated his
wife and daughter. The daughter asks, “Mom,
how many different kinds of willies are there?”
The mother smiles and says, “Well, dear, a man
goes through three phases also. In his 20s, his
willy is like an oak tree, mighty and hard. In his
30s and 40s, it’s like a birch, flexible but reliable.
After his 50s, it’s like a Christmas tree.” “A
Christmas tree?” the daughter asks. “Yes, dead
from the root up and the balls are just for
decoration.”

#Jokes

Supreme Court Sacks 5 PDP GOVERNORS

Nigerian Affiars Joke

Please I beg you, don't laugh pls, pls

Do you see how Boko Haram look like?